Semantic Memory

Semantic memory refers to the memory of meanings, understandings, and other concept-based knowledge, and underlies the conscious recollection of factual information and general knowledge about the world. Semantic and episodic memory together make up the category of declarative memory, which is one of the two major divisions in memory. With the use of our semantic memory we can give meaning to otherwise meaningless words and sentences. We can learn about new concepts by applying our knowledge learned from things in the past. The counterpart to declarative, or explicit memory, is procedural memory, or implicit memory
Semantic memory includes generalized knowledge that does not involve memory of a specific event. For instance, semantic memory is knowing how to add and subtract, whereas episodic memory is the specific memory of being taught how to subtract.

The idea of semantic memory was first introduced following a conference in 1972 between Endel Tulving, of the University of Toronto, and W. Donaldson on the role of organization in human memory. Tulving constructed a proposal to distinguish between episodic memory and what he termed semantic memory. He was mainly influenced by the ideas of Reiff and Scheers, who in 1959 made the distinction between two primary forms of memory. One form titled remembrances and the other memoria. The remembrance concept dealt with memories that contained the experiences of an autobiographic index, whereas the memoria’ concept dealt with those memories without the experiences of an autobiographic index. Semantic memory was to reflect our knowledge of the world around us. It holds generic information that is more than likely acquired across various contexts and is able to be used across different situations. According to Madigan in his book titled Memory, semantic memory is the sum of all knowledge you have obtained- whether it be your vocabulary, understanding of math, and all the facts you know. The use of semantic memory is quite different from that of episodic memory. Semantic memory refers to general facts and meanings we share with others whereas episodic memory refers to unique and concrete personal experiences. Tulving's proposal of this distinction between semantic and episodic memory was widely accepted mainly because it allowed the separate conceptualization of knowledge of the world. Tulving discusses these separate systems of conceptualization of episodic and semantic memory in his book titled Elements of Episodic Memory. He states that both episodic and semantic memory differ in regards to several factors including:

1. the characteristics of their operations,
2. the kind of information they process, and
3. their application to the real world as well as the memory laboratory.

Before this proposal by Tulving this area of human memory had been neglected by experimental psychologists. A number of experimenters have conducted tests to determine the validity of Tulving’s hypothesized distinction of episodic and semantic memory.

semantic memory is a experience memory in our life starting from our birth until the end of life andcan give affect to concept-based knowledge.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memory

Method of loci

The Method of Loci (plural of Latin locus for place or location), also called the memory palace, is a mnemonic device introduced in ancient Roman and Greek rhetorical treatises (in the anonymous Rhetorica ad Herennium, Cicero's De Oratore, and Quintilian's Institutio oratoria). In basic terms, it is a method of memory enhancement which uses visualization to organize and recall information. Many memory contest champions claim to use this technique in order to recall faces, digits, and lists of words. These champions’ successes have little to do with brain structure or intelligence, but more to do with their technique of using regions of their brain that have to do with spatial learning.

The term is most often found in specialised works on psychology, neurobiology and memory, though it was used in the same general way at least as early as the first half of the nineteenth century in works on rhetoric, logic and philosophy.

'the method of loci', an imaginal technique known to the ancient Greeks and Romans and described by Yates (1966) in her book The Art of Memory as well as by Luria (1969). In this technique the subject memorizes the layout of some building, or the arrangement of shops on a street, or any geographical entity which is composed of a number of discrete loci. When desiring to remember a set of items the subject literally 'walks' through these loci and commits an item to each one by forming an image between the item and any distinguishing feature of that locus. Retrieval of items is achieved by 'walking' through the loci, allowing the latter to activate the desired items. The efficacy of this technique has been well established (Ross and Lawrence 1968, Crovitz 1969, 1971, Briggs, Hawkins and Crovitz 1970, Lea 1975), as is the minimal interference seen with its use.

The items to be remembered in this mnemonic system are mentally associated with specific physical locations.[4] The method relies on memorized spatial relationships to establish, order and recollect memorial content. It is also known as the "Journey Method," used for storing lists of unrelated items, or the "Roman Room" technique, which is most effective for storing unrelated information.

method loci make easy our memory to work. because this method help in short term memory be long term memory. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci  

Memory Procedural

Procedural memory is memory for the performance of particular types of action. Procedural memory guides the processes we perform and most frequently resides below the level of conscious awareness. When needed, procedural memories are automatically retrieved and utilized for the execution of the integrated procedures involved in both cognitive and motor skills, from tying shoes to flying an airplane to reading. Procedural memories are accessed and used without the need for conscious control or attention. Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory and, more specifically, a type of implicit memory. Procedural memory is created through "procedural learning" or, repeating a complex activity over and over again until all of the relevant neural systems work together to automatically produce the activity. Implicit procedural learning is essential to the development of any motor skill or cognitive activity.
 The difference between procedural and declarative memory systems was first explored and understood with simple semantics. Psychologists and Philosophers began writing about memory over a century ago. "Mechanical memory" was first noted in 1804 by Maine de Biran. William James, within his famous book: Principles of Psychology(1890), suggested that there was a difference between memory and habit. Cognitive psychology disregarded the influence of learning on memory systems in its early years, and this greatly limited the research conducted in procedural learning up until the 20th century.^[1] The turn of the century brought a clearer understanding of the functions and structures involved in procedural memory acquisition, storage and retrieval processes. McDougall (1923) first made the distinction between explicit and implicit memory. In the 1970s procedural and declarative knowledge was distinguished in literature on artificial intelligence. Studies in the 1970s, divided and moved towards two areas of work, one focusing on animal studies and the other to amnesic patients. The first convincing experimental evidence for a dissociation between declarative memory (“knowing what”) and non-declarative or procedural (“knowing how”) memory was from Milner (1962), by demonstrating that a severely amnesic patient, Henry Molaison, formerly known as patient H.M., could learn a hand–eye coordination skill (mirror drawing) in the absence of any memory of having practiced the task before. Although this finding indicated that memory was not made up of a single system positioned in one place in the brain, at the time, others agreed that motor skills are likely a special case that represented a less cognitive form of memory. However, by refining and improving experimental measures, there has been extensive research using amnesic patients varying locations and degrees of structural damage. Increased work with amnesic patients lead to the finding that they were able to retain and learn tasks other than motor skills. However, these findings had shortcomings in how they were perceived as amnesic patients sometimes fell short on normal levels of performance and therefore amnesia was viewed as strictly a retrieval deficit. Further studies with amnesic patients found a larger domain of normally functioning memory for skill abilities. For example, using a mirror reading task, amnesic patients showed performance at a normal rate, even though they are unable to remember some of the words that they were reading. In the 1980s much was discovered about the anatomy physiology of the mechanisms involved in procedural memory. The cerebellum, hippocampus, neostriatum, and basal ganglia were identified as being involved in memory acquisition tasks.

everything in our life average about memory procedural, in bank, in fast food and other don't forget in a simple activity we always use memory procedural for example in writing, eating etc.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory

The facts about being a shopaholic

Oniomania can often occur in conjunction with bipolar disorder and other depressive conditions, and Sederer explains compulsive behaviors in general, provide temporary relief from a variety of difficult feelings, including low mood, low self-regard, intense anxiety, and tensions in personal relationships.
But whatever relief it provides is very transient and typically followed by a resurgence of the feelings the behavior meant to overcome, with the added difficulties of any financial problems the excessive shopping may create.

A common scenario in which someone exhibits symptoms of or tendency to being a shopaholic is when a relationship ends; for example, the woman who goes out and buys an excessive amount of clothing after her boyfriend leaves her. Like Sederer indicates, the purchases are meant to temporarily relieve the pain of relationship loss.
For some experts, a person might become a shopaholic because they become the ‘center of attention’ in a store, where they are tended to continuously.

“Shopping addiction resembles drug, gambling or alcoholic addiction,” psychologist Nadezhda Yugrina told PRAVDA.Ru. “One should look for its reasons in the childhood of every particular individual. As a rule, such people suffered from the shortage of human care and tenderness when children. A person can grow in a normal family and receive good education, but experience a strong need in love. When such people grow up, they can find attention in various stores.”

Not all compulsive shopping associated with a shopaholic is related to childhood issues or a need to alleviate negative feelings, however. WebMD indicates some individuals may be genetically predisposed to addictive behaviors, which create a “feel good” chemical response in the brain. These addictive behaviors can express in different ways — drugs and alcohol, sex, food and shopping.

“Individuals will get some kind of high from an addictive behavior like shopping,” said to WebMD, Ruth Engs, EdD, a professor of applied health science at Indiana University. “Meaning that endorphins and dopamine, naturally occurring opiate receptor sites in the brain, get switched on, and the person feels good, and if it feels good they are more likely to do it — it’s reinforced.”

Even still, there is another factor which may contribute to oniomania—the presence of another behavioral disorder. Individuals with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), for example, are more likely than others to become shopaholics because impulsivity is a part of living with ADHD. This characteristic makes it difficult for these individuals to think of the consequences of over-spending at the time of purchase. Health Central explains individuals with ADHD can also suffer from anxiety and depression, which bring oniomania back to the category of other addictions and compulsions, which are performed to alleviate stress.

Unfortunately, shopaholics often experience guilt after they get home with their purchases. This can lead to more compulsive shopping, making the process cyclical.
“It is a vicious circle,” said Yugrina. “At first people go to a store and spend a lot of money there but then they suffer from the sense of guilt and go to a store to get rid of this feeling again. If a person wants to put an end to this permanent shopping, they are supposed to approach the issue as a problem and ask for psychological help.”

http://voxxi.com/2013/07/28/psychology-shopaholic-retail-therapy/

Broken Home

Broken” Meaning : The state of families with divorced or separated fathers or mothers are constantly arguing. Definition: A condition caused chaos in the family of internal conflict within a family that lead to psychological stress. Broken Home is often the trigger of a person becomes addicted to drugs. Although not all cases of drug addiction is triggered by a Broken Home, but circumstances are not harmonious families often make a person look for an escape and tranquility in the form of drug consumption. Family environment that is conducive to creating a peace factor in a person, as well as the attention and affection bestowed on the child’s parents are naturally calm. Obtained from the family, can prevent someone from seeking peace in another form, one of which is by taking drugs. Broken home is a term used to describe a household, usually in reference to parenting, in the which the family unit does not function properly accepted societal norms According to. This household Might Suffer from domestic violence, a dissolved marriage, drug abuse, or anything else That interferes with the upbringing of children.

Behavior of social groups that allow a person to participate effectively in a group or society.
Broken Home Family impact on adolescent social development are: parental divorce itself lead to distrust of the ability and position, he felt humbled to be afraid to come out and hang out with friends. Children’s difficult to adjust to the environment. In family crippled boy who grew up, tend to have difficulty adjusting to the environment, the difficulties that come naturally from the child himself. Impact on young women who do not have a father behaved with extreme one way to a man, they really pulled out the possibility that passive and inferior both too active, aggressive and flirtatious.

broken home  broken home is very impact on the psychology of children and can make the child fall into promiscuity, drugs and drinking


http://novenasumampouw17.wordpress.com/2012/02/29/broken-home-teenager-by-novena-sumampouw/

SMOKING

Sigmund Freud is widely known for his psycho sexual stages of development. He believed that if

these stages were not completed, a fixation would develop. According to Freud, oral fixations,

such as thumb sucking, gum chewing, and smoking, were the result of an uncompleted oral

stage. We believed that earliest form of oral pleasure, breastfeeding, would have a connection

with an oral fixation that can occur later in life (smoking). We hypothesized that the duration of

breastfeeding, whether too long or too short would have some kind of effect with the incidence

of smoking later in life.

‘Oral receptive’ is brought on by too much nursing whereas ‘oral aggressive is brought on by not enough nursing and/or by early weaning. Oral receptive people are often cheerful, unrealistically optimistic and very self-centered yet can’t bear the disapproval of others. Through the defence mechanism of sublimation, they may show an interest in languages, be a compulsive talker and be good at ventriloquism. The language used to describe overly-dependent people may reflect their orality - eg: ‘leech’. Very gullible people may be called ‘suckers’.
‘Oral aggressive’ people are often perceived as greedy and acquisitive, envious, pessimistic, cynical, sarcastic, scornful and contemptuous.

Orally-fixated people often seek gratification through smoking, thumb-sucking, nail-biting and chewing objects like pens and pencils. A predilection for oral sex is also seen as an indication of an oral personality.

smoking is not good for our health and we must keep health of our family and environment. maybe opinion Sigmund Freud it's true because it's reasonable

http://clearinghouse.missouriwestern.edu/manuscripts/458.phphttp://www.integratedsociopsychology.net/psychoseuxal_fixations.html 

Homosexual

Homosexual

In a now-famous letter to an American mother in 1935, Freud wrote:

"Homosexuality is assuredly no advantage, but it is nothing to be ashamed of, no vice, no degradation, it cannot be classified as an illness; we consider it to be a variation of the sexual function produced by a certain arrest of sexual development. Many highly respectable individuals of ancient and modern times have been homosexuals, several of the greatest men among them (Plato, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, etc.). It is a great injustice to persecute homosexuality as a crime, and cruelty too....
"If [your son] is unhappy, neurotic, torn by conflicts, inhibited in his social life, analysis may bring him harmony, peace of mind, full efficiency whether he remains a homosexual or gets changed...." (reprinted in Jones, 1957, pp. 208-209, from the American Journal of Psychiatry, 1951, 107, 786).

Theory Sigmund Freud says actors of homosexual have a problem on stage phallic. He was influenced by the experiences of his childhood. Especially at 3 - 6 years old. At this stage he meets oedipal conflicts. At this time he could not vent his sexual fantasies to his mother. Like he wanted to be loved and be loved by her mother, but at that time his mother more attention to his father and his mother & wishes he have not met, then he meet the anxieties which the anxiety here is he worried that he would be punished by his father because of his feelings towards his mother . This prompted anxiety he identify with his father and began to imitate him rather than against him. And this is what makes he develop phallic personality and suppress sexual feelings towards his mother. Because it he can be homosexual.

Homosexual serious problem if not true treatment but we must knowing what is homosexual and what the signs of homosexual are is a step in the right direction in stopping it in its tracks. There is help for both the actor homosexual and the victim and anyone 

http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/facts_mental_health.html

Bully

Bullying is a distinctive pattern of deliberately harming and humiliating others. It's a very durable behavioral style, largely because bullies get what they want—at least at first. Bullies are made, not born, and it happens at an early age.

Bullies couldn't exist without victims, and they don't pick on just anyone; those singled out lack assertiveness and radiate fear long before they ever encounter a bully. No one likes a bully, but no one likes a victim either. Grown-up bullies wreak havoc in their relationships and in the workplace.

Bullying is a serious issue. There are many reasons for bullying but none are so serious that they cannot be overcome with the right treatment. This type of behavior must be curbed as it has proven to have lasting psychological effects on the victims and lasting effects on the bully as well. Knowing what bullying is and what the signs of bullying are is a step in the right direction in stopping it in its tracks. There is help for both the bully and the victim and anyone who knows that bullying is going on is responsible for helping to get the process of help going. It may not be happening to you personally, but it is everyone’s responsibility to help stop it.

my opinion is bully should be stopped with the approach of the perpetrators and victims of bullying. while keeping its prevention can be harmonies at home and do not curb the wishes of children.

http://www.theravive.com/research/The-Psychology-Of-Bullying