Human intelligence

It is no denying the greatness of human thinking abilities . Ranging from not knowing anything to knowing various things about the surroundings and the imaginations that they appear . The longer , without us knowing one's ability to think and analyze it to grow rapidly . But otherwise too , can also experience a wide variety of setbacks in the process of processing the information . From here many researchers who are motivated to learn about the human capabilities and how those processes are happening to him . By knowing this we can further maximize the return in our thought processes . Solso (2007 ) in his book ; Cognitive Psychology , define the capabilities regarding it or that we are familiar with intelligence as the ability to acquire , recall ( recall ) and use the knowledge to understand abstract concepts and concrete and the relationship between objects and ideas , as well as application of knowledge and a wide range of information appropriately .
Nickerson , Perkins and Smith (1985 ) believes about some ability to represent and explain human intelligence capabilities , namely one's ability to classify patterns . This is what underlies the ability to speak in a language which is in desperate need to assemble the structures of language itself . The second , is the ability to modify behavior adaptively or customize it with a variety of behavioral circumstances in which a person is located. Then the ability to think deductively ( from the information becoming public are specified or inferred ) and inductive thinking ( of a certain information is developed with a variety of assumptions into a variety of new information or in - generalization ) . Thinking like that we used to do every day in our daily activities , when learning mathematics , ponder the lessons in class earlier , solve our problems , fixing something and others . Reasoning that essentially needed to the existing information to be drawn " red thread " of it . From here also relies heavily on a person's ability to comprehend or understand any given stimulus either verbally or non - verbally . And the last one according to their ability to represent human intelligence is the ability to develop and use conceptual models . Not all things that exist always appear in front of our eyes . Human senses each has its limitations so that there is knowledge that we do not see directly . Here is part of thinking imaginatively .
Solso (2007 ) also mentions about the information processing through certain stages that can represent human intelligence capability . Each stage is interconnected underlying the ability of human perpikir . Speed ​​of information processing is one of the most important things about human intelligence capability . The sooner the information is processed , the higher the person's level of intelligence . Because it requires a connection or link that quickly and accurately in response to an information . Then as essentially also is the general human knowledge . The human brain is like a storage shed all kinds of information and knowledge during their lives , so the more information is stored and is known by them , the more made ​​it a benchmark of human intelligence capability . Furthermore , of what is in - stimulus and existing in a person 's memory , will be rationalized and re-developed . By making sense of the information available , we are just linking them with each other , looking for the information interconnectedness , connect , sync , equating , to conclude and make a concept or a particular framework . And in the end , this one can be used to solve a problem . This is the conclusion of the reasoning process . Without it we would not be able to make decisions and behave in everyday acts .
All existing processes when we think it is a reflection of a person's level of intelligence capabilities , ranging from simple skills to intricate . Intelligence itself is a representation or a representative of a wide range of cognitive abilities described above was . As a dynamic creature , all things that exist within the human self ; either physical or psychological , can also develop better or even vice versa . And everyone else will be better able to increasing their intelligence capabilities by practicing and learning , although most people are innate abilities that will support their intelligence capabilities .

Piaget's stages of Cognitive Development

It is the characteristic of a human being to evolve over time . Whether it be biological , physiological , and psychological socialist . Similarly, the cognitive development of each individual , will have growth as well . While still in early stages of normal development . Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a scientist and leader psychology who are concerned about the development of human cognition throughout life span. In its own development , not only by psychological factors that influence the development of individual cognition , but they are biological factors also influence each other . Pieget also noted the two major principles in human cognitive development , namely organization and adaptation . ( Solso , 2007 )
The principle here is the nature of the organization of mental structures and inter- tiered stages and relate with each other . According to Piaget's view , a person's mental ability and cognition is a relationship that is organized or structured with very complex and complementary . The most basic structure is the mental schemes which , although still a bit abstract but it has been entered within the organizing structure . Increasingly, there developed schemes that and more organized and coordinated with each other to form patterns more regular and it makes the mind more and more mature and adult . The second principle is adaptation . Which is based on the principle of adaptation assimilation process ; acquiring information from outside and combine it with information we have seen before , and accommodation ; old information processing and information processing in the new object from the outside .
And the most famous of Piaget's developmental theory of cognition is the whole pool of human life is divided into four stages . In each stage , a normal person's cognitive abilities will grow and mature . Because it is the result of two principles above earlier ; organization and adaptation , which makes any information and knowledge gained becomes increasingly complex and complement each other . So in its development , the longer a person's cognitive ability is getting more mature . The first stage is the stage of Sensory - motor , with a range of developmental age between 0 to 2 years . Characteristics of cognitive development at this stage is dominated by reflex movements obtained from the sensor senses . And in this case or the mindset that there is still an abstract scheme and rely on reflex alone . Individuals not recognize objective reality that is around.
Continues to the next stage , namely Pre - operational , between the ages of 2-7 years . At this stage a child can begin to think about something , but still have not been able to develop patterns of thought . His mind is egocentrism , which is still not able to see or look at a case from the viewpoint of others . These children will perceive only they knew it. Language development starts to become perfect . Begins with an understanding of the language and symbols of others. Although the patterns of thought has begun to evolve , but the ability to think logically is still not very mature anyway , because it is still dominated by their intuition . Switching level to the next stage , ie - concrete operational stage contained in the age range 7-11 years . According to Piaget at this stage there are three important aspects in one's intellectual growth , namely : conservation , classification , and transitivity . Conservation is the ability to transfer the properties of an object to another object . Classification is the ability to categorize or classify an object with other objects that have a certain similarity . While transitivity is the ability to assemble multiple elements according to certain relations . From here also , come further reasoning on the figures . The ability to count and increased logic .
Fourth and final stage of stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development is Operational - formal.Kognisi someone has been able to think universally , that is not fixated on one aspect and started waning nature of egocentrism . So someone already started thinking of various kinds of point of view, not only of himself alone in understanding the various problems . Being able to make the allegations more structured and organized . Reality is acceptable and understood further . The ability to think logically mature , not only on an object that looked just reality . Abstract thought is also growing more complex . So this , it is able to help children think more creative and innovative again . The ability to think scientifically developed also begin at this stage . ( Solso , 2007)
Study - level cognitive development Piaget described above is very helpful for us to know and learn about human development over the life span. If we know each development task , we can further maximize and optimize return what we can accomplish and we get it from every stage of development . No other is to be able to understand the deeper it will live . Apart from the above purposes , we also can learn about various irregularities re - penyimpanggan mental and cognition during the span of human life . To make it easier for the prevention and healing back on a wide range of mental disorders as well as one's cognition .

Teenage Stress

March 2009 - Research led by UCLA to be published in Psychosomatic Medicine has found that stress in adolescence may have a negative impact on health in adulthood. Healthy teenagers reporting interpersonal conflicts had increased levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) an inflammatory marker associated with later development of cardiovascular disease (CVD).

Andrew J. Fuligni, professor of psychiatry, said:

"Although most research on stress and inflammation has focused upon adulthood, these results show that such links can occur as early as the teenage years, even among a healthy sample of young men and women. That suggests that alterations in the biological substrates that initiate CVD begin before adulthood."

The researchers explain that common stressors, such as arguing with family or friends, are among the most powerful predictors of psychological distress. The current study investigated the potential physiological impact in 69 individuals with an average age of 17 years from Latin American and European backgrounds. Participants completed a check-list on 14 consecutive nights, reporting any negative interpersonal interactions with family, peers or school personnel (including disagreements, harassment or punishments). The study allowed for variables as socioeconomic status, major stressful life events and over-sensitivity to rejection. Researchers found that daily interpersonal stress was associated with elevated levels of inflammation, as measured by higher levels of CRP in blood samples assayed an average of eight months later.

Andrew Fuligni commented:

"Our findings are consistent with the emerging body of evidence that points to the link between stress and increased inflammation, which places individuals at risk for the later development of cardiovascular disease."

The study also found that this association was unrelated to the individual's psychological appraisal of stressful experiences or level of sensitivity to social rejection. Researchers comment that this highlights the importance of focusing on actual daily stressful experiences in adolescence when assessing the role of psychological and social factors in development of risk for CVD.

Andrew Fuligni concluded:

"Although the frequency of some of these experiences may be low, they could have a significant impact upon long-term physical health during adulthood." 

http://www.psyarticles.com/stress/teen-stress.htm

Perceiving Emotions

Research from the Waseda Institute for Advanced Study in Tokyo, published in Psychological Science, compared how Japanese and Dutch people assess another's emotions. The study found that Japanese people pay more attention to the tone of voice than facial expression. The reverse was the case for Dutch participants. 

Researchers recorded Japanese and Dutch actors expressing the neutral phrase 'is that so?' in angry and happy ways. Videos were edited to match angry tone with happy facial expression and vice versa. Japanese and Dutch volunteers watched the videos in both languages and were asked to assess whether the person was happy or angry. The study found that Japanese participants paid more attention to vocal tone, even when instructed to concentrate on facial expression. Researchers suggest this reflects different ways of communicating that may lead to misunderstandings.

Researcher Akihiro Tanaka commented:

"I think Japanese people tend to hide their negative emotions by smiling, but it’s more difficult to hide negative emotions in the voice."

Japanese people may be used to listening for emotional cues. A Dutch person used to the voice and face matching may see a Japanese person smiling and overlook the upset tone, thereby reaching the wrong conclusion about the person's mood.

Detecting false smiles

Research by Masaki Yuki (Hokkaido University), William Maddux (INSEAD) and Takahiko Masuda (University of Alberta) published in the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology in 2007 compared Japanese and American interpretations of computerized icons and human images showing a range of emotions.

Findings suggest that where emotional control is the cultural norm (e.g. Japan) eyes are the key to interpretation. In cultures where there is more open expression of emotion (e.g. USA) the mouth is the main focus.

Takahiko Masuda commented:

"We think it is quite interesting and appropriate that a culture that tends to masks its emotions, such as Japan, would focus on a person's eyes when determining emotion, as eyes tend to be quite subtle. In the United States, where overt emotion is quite common, it makes sense to focus on the mouth, which is the most expressive feature on a person's face."

Researchers also detected these differences in interpretation of computer emoticons, used in email and text messaging. Japanese emoticons distinguish happiness and sadness in depiction of the eyes, while American emoticons use direction of the mouth. The results suggest that Japanese may be better at detecting "false smiles".

Takahiko Masuda said:

"These findings go against the popular theory that the facial expressions of basic emotions can be universally recognized. A person's culture plays a very strong role in determining how they will perceive emotions and needs to be considered when interpreting facial expression."

Music And The Effects Of Alcohol

Research led by the Université de Bretagne-Sud published in Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research found that playing loud music in licensed premises led customers to drink more alcohol over a shorter time period.

Corresponding author Nicolas Guéguen, a professor of behavioral sciences said:

"Previous research had shown that fast music can cause fast drinking, and that music versus no music can cause a person to spend more time in a bar. This is the first time that an experimental approach in a real context found the effects of loud music on alcohol consumption."

The study was conducted in two bars in a medium-sized western French city over three Saturday evenings. Researchers covertly observed 40 males between 18 and 25 years of age who ordered at least one glass of draft beer (25 cl or 8 oz). With the owners' permission, sound levels of Top 40 songs were randomly manipulated to 72 dB (considered normal) or 88 dB (considered high) and an individual selected for observation. After that person left the process was repeated. High sound levels were associated with increased drinking within a decreased amount of time.

The researchers offered two hypotheses to explain this finding as Nicolas Guéguen explained:

"One, in agreement with previous research on music, food and drink, high sound levels may have caused higher arousal, which led the subjects to drink faster and to order more drinks. Two, loud music may have had a negative effect on social interaction in the bar, so that patrons drank more because they talked less."

The researchers point out that in France more than 70 000 people die every year as a consequence of chronic alcohol consumption, and alcohol is associated with the majority of fatal car accidents.

Nicolas Guéguen concluded:

"We have shown that environmental music played in a bar is associated with an increase in drinking. We need to encourage bar owners to play music at more of a moderate level ... and make consumers aware that loud music can influence their alcohol consumption."

If you have a loved one who is suffering from chronic alcoholism, an alcohol intervention may be the solution to getting them into treatment.

Child Personality Predicts Adult Behavior

Personality traits observed in childhood are a strong predictor of adult behavior according to research from the the University of California, Riverside, the Oregon Research Institute and University of Oregon to be published in Social Psychological and Personality Science.

The researchers drew on data from a study of approximately 2400 ethnically diverse elementary school students in Hawaii in the 1960s, comparing personality ratings by teachers at the time with videotaped interviews of 144 of those individuals forty years later.

Lead author and doctoral candidate Christopher S. Nave explained:

"We remain recognisably the same person. This speaks to the importance of understanding personality because it does follow us wherever we go across time and contexts."

The researchers examined four personality attributes:

• verbally fluent
• adaptable
• impulsive
• self-minimising

Students who had been identified as verbally fluent (defined as unrestrained talkativeness) tended in middle age to be interested in intellectual matters, speak fluently, try to control the situation, and demonstrate a high degree of intelligence. Those who had been rated low tended to seek advice, give up when faced with challenges, and exhibit 'an awkward interpersonal style'.

Students who had been rated as highly adaptable (defined as coping easily and successfully with new situations) tended, in adulthood, to behave cheerfully, speak fluently and show interest in intellectual matters. Those who had been rated low tended to say negative things about themselves, seek advice and exhibit an awkward interpersonal style.

Students who had been rated as impulsive tended, as adults, to speak loudly, display a wide range of interests and be talkative.

Those who had been rated low tended to demonstrate fear or timidity, expressing insecurity and maintaining a distance from others.

Students who had been rated as having a tendency to self-minimise (defined as humble, minimising their own importance or never showing off ) were likely to express guilt, seek reassurance, say negative things about themselves and express insecurity as adults. Those ranked low tended to speak loudly, show interest in intellectual matters and exhibit condescending behavior.

Christopher S. Nave commented:

"We think that personality resides within us. It’s a part of us, a part of our biology. Life events still influence our behaviors, yet we must acknowledge the power of personality in understanding future behavior as well." 

Eye Contact and Social Interaction

A study reported in Psychological Science looks at some of the small signals that seem to be important for social interaction.

Feeling 'connected' is known to be significant for personal well-being and happiness. In this study Eric D. Wesselmann of Purdue University and co-authors Florencia D. Cardoso of the Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata in Argentina, Samantha Slater of Ohio University, and Kipling D. Williams of Purdue describe a study conducted to investigate just how small a cue can help someone feel connected. Acording to Wesselman:

"Some of my coauthors have found, for example, that people have reported that they felt bothered sometimes even when a stranger hasn’t acknowledged them."

The authors designed an experiment to test that with the cooperation of people on campus at Purdue University. A research assistant walking along a busy path identified a subject, and either:

1. met the person’s eyes
2. met the subject's eyes and smiled
3. looked in the direction of the individual’s eyes - but past, for example, an ear

Wesselmann describes the third approach as "looking at them as if they were air."

After passing the individual the assistant signalled another experimenter with a thumbs-up behind the back to stop that person and ask how disconnected they felt from other people. (One assumes that people on Purdue campus are used to being asked to participate in surveys). The people who had eye contact from the research assistant - with or without a smile - reported feeling less disconnected than those who had been looked at as if they weren’t there.

"These are people that you don’t know, just walking by you, but them looking at you or giving you the air gaze - looking through you - seemed to have at least momentary effect. What we find so interesting about this is that now we can further speak to the power of human social connection. It seems to be a very strong phenomenon.

Social Interactions Are Intense Experiences

September 2010 - The most intense positive and negative experiences tend to be associated with social interaction rather than individual accomplishment, according to research from the University at Buffalo published in Self and Identity.

Co-author Shira Gabriel, PhD, associate professor of psychology, said:

"Most of us spend much of our time and effort focused on individual achievements such as work, hobbies and schooling. However this research suggests that the events that end up being most important in our lives, the events that bring us the most happiness and also carry the potential for the most pain, are social events - moments of connecting to others and feeling their connections to us."

The authors explain that previous social psychological research into this topic has tended to conclude that independent events rather than those involving other individuals are responsible for the strongest emotional experiences.

The research was based on 376 subjects who participated in four interrelated studies. The first involved college students asked to describe the most positive and negative emotional experience of their lives. Irrespective of gender, they were much more likely to identify social rather than independent events. The second focused on middle-aged participants asked to describe a recent intense emotional experience with similar results. The third study was designed to exclude the possibility that social events simply have greater salience. The fourth found that social events have far greater impact and reflect the need to belong.

Shira Gabriel concluded:

"...it was not independent events or individual achievements like winning awards or completing tasks that affected participants the most, but the moments when close relationships began or ended; when people fell in love or found a new friend; when a loved one died or broke their hearts. In short, it was the moments of connecting to others that that touched peoples' lives the most."

* "What Makes Us Feel the Best Also Makes Us Feel the Worst: The Emotional Impact of Independent and Interdependent Experiences"

The researchers include principal author Lisa Jaremka, a doctoral student in psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara, and Mauricio Cavallo, PhD, assistant professor of psychology at the University of Oklahoma, Norman, both graduates of UB. 

Resilience, Satisfaction and Happiness

Some of us never get over the pain of losing of a loved one while for most people adverse emotional situations associated with anxiety and depression fade with time. But there is another group who actually gain strength and grow personally from meeting adversity.

254 students from the Faculty of Psychology at the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB) were tested on different questionnaires to gauge levels of satisfaction with life and probe connections between resilience and capacity for emotional recovery. The latter quality is a component of emotional intelligence - the ability to control a person's own emotions and those of others.

The results showed that students who were more resilient (about a fifth) were more satisfied with life and also believed they had control over their emotions and state of mind. Resilience seems to be correlated positively with satisfaction with an individual's life.

Dr Joaquín T Limonero, professor of the UAB Research Group on Stress and Health at UAB who coordinated the research said:

"Some of the characteristics of being resilient can be worked on and improved, such as self-esteem and being able to regulate one's emotions. Learning these techniques can offer people the resources needed to help them adapt and improve their quality of life."

The study was published in Behavioral Psychology and also included UAB researcher Jordi Fernández Castro; professors of the Gimbernat School of Nursing (a UAB-affiliated centre) Joaquín Tomás-Sábado and Amor Aradilla Herrera; and psychologist and researcher of Egarsat, M. José Gómez-Romero.

Be Happy - But Not Too Happy

A study by researchers from the Universities of Cambridge and Southern California published in the Journal of Happiness Studies in 2008 found that although women start life happier than men, they experience more difficulty in achieving their goals and end up less happy as a result.

Anke Plagnol and Richard Easterlin's study is said to be the first to use nationally representative long-term data to examine the role of lack of fulfilment in a person's sense of well-being. Researchers explain that expectations of success may vary between generations and demographic characteristics alter over time. Controlling for relevant factors such as race and education, they found that women are, on average, happier than men in early adulthood but after the age of 48 the position is reversed especially in relation to family and finances.

Anke Plagnol said:

"Men come closer to fulfilling their aspirations, are more satisfied with their family lives and financial situations, and are the happier of the two."

The study found that 90 per cent of men and women aspire to a happy marriage.

Anke Plagnol commented:

"Differences between men and women in aspirations for marriage and children are fairly small. Gender differences in satisfaction depend largely on attainment."

Researchers found that the least happy period of the average man's life was his twenties when he was most likely to be single. Young men are also more dissatisfied with their financial situations, not because they are worse off, but because they want more. Those in a relationship also tend to be in a stronger financial position than those who must depend solely on their own resources.

After the age of 34, men are more likely to be married than women, and the happiness gap widens with age, mirroring men's growing satisfaction with family life. Men also become more satisfied with their financial situations over time, as reflected in their increased spending power. Researchers found that men tend to covet expensive items that might not be affordable until later in life, such as a car or vacation home. However, women want more "nice clothes" than men. These findings are consistent with an earlier study by Richard Easterlin showing that recent generations are less satisfied than previous generations, despite having more.

Anke Plagnol said:

"Of course, one doesn't have to be married to be happy, but if that's something you really want - and it is for most people - then the failure to attain it can have an impact on your overall happiness."

Some age milestones:

• 41: Age at which men's financial satisfaction exceeds women's financial satisfaction
• 48: Age at which men's overall happiness exceeds women's overall happiness
• 64: Age at which men's satisfaction with family life exceeds women's satisfaction

A study published in Perspectives on Psychological Science in 2007/8 argued that the pursuit of happiness can be taken to extremes and that moderate levels may be preferable to elation. Researchers from the University of Virginia, the University of Illinois and Michigan State University analyzed data from the World Values Survey of economic, social, political and religious influences and studied the behaviors and attitudes of 193 Illinois undergraduate students.

Researchers explain that many indicators of success and well-being (such as relationships, employment, health and longevity) are correlated with greater happiness with some studies suggesting that it is causal rather than consequent. However, their findings challenge the common assumption that all positive measures increase along with happiness. Individuals classifying themselves as most happy (10 on a 10-point life satisfaction scale) were in some respects worse off than those scoring slightly less.

Ed Diener, professor of psychology at Illinois said:

"Happy people are more likely (than unhappy people) to get married, are more likely to stay married, are more likely to think their marriage is good. They're more likely to volunteer. They're more likely to be rated highly by their supervisor and they're more likely to make more money."

"But there is a caveat, and that is to say: 'Do you then have to be happier and happier? How happy is happy enough?"

Researchers hypothesised that mildly happy people (classifying themselves as 8 and 9 on a 10-point scale) may be more successful in some respects than those who consider themselves at the top of the scale. Profoundly happy people may be less inclined to alter their behavior or adjust to external changes even when flexibility would be advantageous. Data from the World Values Survey supported that prediction.

The authors said:

"The highest levels of income, education and political participation were reported not by the most satisfied individuals (10 on the 10-point scale) but by moderately satisfied individuals (8 or 9 on the 10-point scale)."

The study found that the most satisfied individuals earned significantly less, had lower educational achievements and were less politically engaged than the moderately satisfied. However the most satisfied individuals were more successful socially, engaging more often as volunteers and maintaining more stable relationships.

The study of 193 undergraduates revealed a similar pattern. Students were categorized as unhappy, slightly happy, moderately happy, happy or very happy. Success in categories related to academic performance (such as grade-point average, class attendance and conscientiousness) increased as happiness increased, but decreased slightly for individuals classified as very happy. However, the very happy group scored significantly higher on social factors (such as gregariousness, close friendships, self-confidence, energy and time spent dating).

Researchers suggest that happiness may need to be moderated for success in some areas of life, such as income, conscientiousness and career.

Ed Diener commented:

"The people in our study who are the most successful in terms of things like income are mildly happy most of the time."

Previous studies linking health and emotions have found that extremely happy people diagnosed with serious illnesses do not always demonstrate better outcomes. Researchers speculate that this may be because they worry insufficiently about crucial issues affecting survival.

Ed Diener added:

"Happy people tend to be optimistic and this might lead them to take their symptoms too lightly, seek treatment too slowly, or follow their physician's orders in a half-hearted way."

Researchers conclude that happiness is a worthy goal for the unhappy, but the endless pursuit of ever more happiness may be counterproductive.

Ed Diener concluded:

"If you're worried about success in life, don't be a 1, 2, 3 or 4 (on the 10-point scale). If you are unhappy or only slightly happy, you may need to seek help or read those self-help books or do something to make yourself happier. But if you're a 7 or 8, maybe you're happy enough!"