WHAT IS INTROVERSION?

WHAT IS INTROVERSION?

Introversion is one of the major personality traits identified in many theories of personality. People who are introverted tend to be inward turning, or focused more on internal thoughts, feelings and moods rather than seeking out external stimulation. Introversion is generally viewed as existing as part of a continuum along with extraversion. Introversion indicates one end of the scale, while extraversion represents the other end.

The terms introversion and extraversion were popularized through the work of Carl Jung and later became central parts of other prominent theories including the big 5 theory of personality. The introversion-extraversion dimension is also one of the four areas identified by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). According to many theories of personality, everyone has some degree of both introversion and extraversion. However, people often tend to lean one way or the other.

Introverts tend to be more quiet, reserved and introspective. Unlike extraverts who gain energy from social interaction, introverts have to expend energy in social situations. After attending a party or spending time in a large group of people, introverts often feel a need to "recharge" by spending a period of time alone.

Common Introversion Traits

Introversion is marked by a number of different sub-traits:

·         Very self-aware

·         Thoughtful

·         Enjoys understanding details

·         Interested in self-knowledge and self-understanding

·         Tends to keep emotions private

·         Quiet and reserved in large groups or around unfamiliar people

·         More sociable and gregarious around people they know well

·         Learns well through observation

Introversion and Behavior

How does introversion impact behavior? Researchers have found that people high in this trait tend to have a smaller group of friends. While extraverts generally have a wide circle of friends and acquaintances, introverts typically choose their friends much more carefully. Their closest relationships tend to be profound and significant. They also prefer to interact with people on a one-on-one basis rather than in a large group setting.

It is important to note that introversion does not necessarily equate with shyness. In their book, The Development of Shyness and Social Withdrawal, authors Schmidt and Buss write, "Sociability refers to the motive, strong or weak, of wanting to be with others, whereas shyness refers to behavior when with others, inhibited or uninhibited, as well as feelings of tension and discomfort." Shyness indicates a fear of people or social situations. Introverts, on the other hand, simply do not like to spend lots of time interacting with other people. However, they do appreciate being around people to whom they are close. They find engaging in "small talk" tedious, but do enjoy having deep, meaningful conversations.

Introverts tend to think about things before talking. They want to have a full understanding of a concept before they voice an opinion or try to offer an explanation. While extraverts typically learning through trial and error, introverts learn best through observation.

In an excellent article in Atlantic Monthly, author Jonathan Rauch took on some of the common myths and misconceptions about introverts. While introverts are often labeled as shy, aloof and arrogant, Rauch explains that these perceptions results from the failure of extraverts to understand how introverts function. "Extr[a]verts have little or no grasp of introversion," Rauch suggests. "They assume that company, especially their own, is always welcome. They cannot imagine why someone would need to be alone; indeed, they often take umbrage at the suggestion. As often as I have tried to explain the matter to extr[a]verts, I have never sensed that any of them really understood."

According to estimates, extraverts outnumber introverts by about three to one. Introverts often find that other people try to change them or even suggest that there is something "wrong" with them. Nothing could be further from the truth. While introverts make up a smaller portion of the population, there is no right or wrong personality type. Instead, both introverts and extraverts should strive to understand each other's differences and similarities.

As you might imagine, jobs that require a great deal of social interaction usually hold little appeal to people high in introversion. On the other hand, careers that involve working independently are often a great choice for introverts. For example, an introvert my enjoy working as a writer, accountant, computer programmer, graphic designer, pharmacist or artist.

_References

_{Rauch, J. (2003). Caring for your introvert. Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2003/03/caring-for-your-introvert/2696/#}

_{Sword, L. (2002). The Gifted Introvert. Retrieved from http://talentdevelop.com/articles/GiftIntrov.html}

SOCIAL LEARNING ALBERT BANDURA

SOCIAL LEARNING ALBERT BANDURA

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.

His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as Observational Learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.

Basic Social Learning Concepts

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can learn through observation. Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

1. People can learn through observation.

Observational Learning 

In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

1.      A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.

2.      A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.

3.      A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media.

2. Mental states are important to learning.

Intrinsic Reinforcement

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'

3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.

While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.

The Modeling Process

Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:

·         Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.

·         Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

·         Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

·         Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

Final Thoughts

In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had important implication in the field of eduction. Today, both teachers and parents recognize the importance of modeling appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory.

MORE WOMEN GIVING BIRTH AFTER 40

When it comes to changing diapers, breastfeeding and swaddling, 40 is the new 30.

A recent national report found birth rates falling in virtually every age group of women in their childbearing years — except for those between 40 and 50. The group aged 40 to 44 had its largest birth rate since 1967.

Benefiting from improvements in reproductive technology and the fact that most Americans are living longer, more women 40 and over are choosing to have children in later life, particularly after they've accomplished career goals.

That means that as the nation celebrates Mother's Day, over-40 moms are still scheduling visits with the pediatrician while some their age have become grandmothers. Yet several local over-40 moms said they'd have it no other way; the births come when they're more settled, selfless and focused on family.

"I had a very successful career, I did a lot of traveling and I really don't have a lot on my list of things that I haven't done," said Katherine Lally of Pikesville, 42, whose son Emmett will be 2 in July. She also has a 5-year-old daughter, Astrid.

"My take is that we bring our life experiences to mothering. By being an older mom I can bring everything I've learned from my studies, travel, work and life into it," Lally added. "That may be why the trend is towards delaying motherhood — the ability to wait until it's the right time for your family to begin."

The 2008 birth rate report, based on preliminary data from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Center for Health Statistics, found that the birth rate for women in the U.S. aged 40–44 increased 4 percent from the previous year, to 9.9 births per 1,000 women. That was the highest birth rate since 1967, when it was 10.6. The rate for women 45-54 increased from 0.6 in 2007 to 0.7 in 2008.

The report said that in 2008 there were 106,090 births to women ages 40-44. In 1990, there were 48,607 births to that age group.

Brady Hamilton, a statistician at the National Center for Health Statistics and one of the authors of the report, said that during the sluggish economy younger women often delay pregnancy, something that older women cannot do.

Though the overall number of births to women 40 and over are still smaller than those of younger groups, the steady increase reflects marked improvements in life expectancy and improvements to prenatal care, experts say.

Data from the Cleveland Clinic shows that the risk of miscarriage is about 40 percent for women at 40, compared to 15 percent for women in their 20s.

At age 40, there is also a greater likelihood of giving birth prematurely or to a baby with low birth weight. The likelihood of Down Syndrome is ten times higher for a baby born to a 40-year-old woman than one who is 20. There is also a higher risk of ectopic pregnancy, in which an embryo implants outside the uterus, sometimes in a Fallopian tube. Hypertension and gestational diabetes are diagnosed more frequently in pregnant women over age 35.

Physical fitness boosts brainpower in kids, study finds

Elementary school children who were physically fit performed better on… (Damon Winter )

Forget that stereotype about the dumb jock. A new study reveals that kids who are more physically fit score higher on geography tests, too.

Previous research has found that out-of-shape kids get lower grades in school and perform worse on tasks involving memory and other types of cognitive function. In addition, mice that exercise have better spatial learning and memory than sedentary mice.

For the new study, researchers from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign wondered whether there was a correlation between physical fitness and learning. So they recruited 48 kids who were 9 or 10 years old and asked them to learn the names of 10 fictional regions on a made-up map.

Half of the children in the study ranked in the top 30% of fitness (as measured by a treadmill test) for kids their age and gender; the other half ranked in the bottom 30%. Other than that, the kids in both groups were basically the same in terms of socioeconomic status, ADHD symptoms and scores on an intelligence test. In both groups, about half were boys and half were girls.

The children spent one day using iPads to learn the geography of the fictitious maps. In some cases, the learning was reinforced by short quizzes; in others, there was only memorization. Their recall was tested the following day.

Overall, the kids who were physically fit got an average score of 54.2% and the kids who were not fit got an average score of 44.2%. The difference was more pronounced when children were asked to remember the map they had learned without the benefit of quizzes – the fit kids scored 43% on average, while the unfit kids scored 25.8% on average.

Those results suggested to the researchers that “higher levels of fitness have their greatest impact in the most challenging situations.” They also speculated that most of the benefits of being physically fit come into play when a child is committing new information to memory, and not as much when that information is recalled later.