Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Future trends of I/O consulting

Teachout and Vequist (2008)identified driving forces affecting future trends in the business consulting:
(1) changes in the market conditions
(2) competition for market share and talent
(3) changes in customer demands
(4) changes in technology and innovation
(5) increase in costs, especially in energy and health sectors,
(6) globalization.
They also discussed three trends in the field as a result of these forces – people, process, and technology.
Human capital or people

In terms of human capital or people consulting, there are major forces for future trends:
(1) lack of competencies in STEM and communication fields
(2) aging of workforce, resulting in the loss of experience and expertise in organizations
(3) increasing and aggressive competition for talent
(4) increase in project- or contract-based workforce instead of hiring permanent employees
(5) globalization.
 As a result, trends, such as major talent management, selection and recruiting, workplace education and training, and planning for next generation, have emerged. In addition, change management also becomes important in organizations in order to innovate and implement new technology, tools, and systems to cope with changes in the business.

Process

In terms of process consulting, because of an increase in competition, it becomes important to identify and improve key processes that meet customer values and demands as well as that are faster and cheaper.
Technology

In terms of technology consulting, there is an increased need to automate processes or data so that employees can focus on actually doing work and focusing on business rather than doing the manual labor. The consultant can add value to these technologies by providing training, communication plan, and change management as well as to incorporate these technologies into organizational culture. So, regardless of how advanced technology is, consultants are still needed in making sure that these advanced technologies have positive effects on employees and organizations in both technical and social aspects.

Health psychology

    Clinical health psychology (ClHP) is a term that refers to the application of scientific knowledge, derived from the field of health psychology, to clinical questions that may arise across the spectrum of health care. ClHP is one of many specialty practice area for clinical psychologists. It is also a major contributor to the prevention focused field of behavioral health and the treatment oriented field of behavioral medicine. Clinical practice includes education, the techniques of behavior change, and psychotherapy. In some countries, a clinical health psychologist, with additional training, can become a medical psychologist and, thereby, obtain prescription privileges.

    Public health psychology (PHP) is population oriented. A major aim of PHP is to investigate potential causal links between psychosocial factors and health at the population level. Public health psychologists present research results to educators, policy makers, and health care providers in order to promote better public health. PHP is allied to other public health disciplines including epidemiology, nutrition, genetics and biostatistics. Some PHP interventions are targeted toward at-risk population groups (e.g., undereducated, single pregnant women who smoke) and not the population as a whole (e.g., all pregnant women).

    Community health psychology (CoHP) investigates community factors that contribute to the health and well-being of individuals who live in communities. CoHP also develops community-level interventions that are designed to combat disease and promote physical and mental health. The community often serves as the level of analysis, and is frequently sought as a partner in health-related interventions.

    Critical health psychology (CrHP) is concerned with the distribution of power and the impact of power differentials on health experience and behavior, health care systems, and health policy. CrHP prioritizes social justice and the universal right to health for people of all races, genders, ages, and socioeconomic positions. A major concern is health inequalities. The critical health psychologist is an agent of change, not simply an analyst or cataloger. A leading organization in this area is the International Society of Critical Health Psychology.

Health psychology is both a theoretical and applied field. Health psychologists employ diverse research methods. These methods include controlled randomized experiments, quasi-experiments, longitudinal studies, time-series designs, cross-sectional studies, and case-control studies as well as action research. Health psychologists study a broad range of variables including genotype, cardiovascular disease (cardiac psychology), smoking habits, religious beliefs, alcohol use, social support, living conditions, emotional state, social class, and much more. Some health psychologists treat individuals with sleep problems, headaches, alcohol problems, etc. Other health psychologists work to empower community members by helping community members gain control over their health and improve quality of life of entire communities.

Applied sport psychology

Applied sport and exercise psychology consists of instructing athletes, coaches, teams, exercisers, parents, fitness professionals, groups, and other performers on the psychological aspects of their sport or activity. The goal of applied practice is to optimize performance and enjoyment through the use of psychological skills.

It is pertinent to mention that the practice of applied sport psychology is not legally restricted to individuals who possess one type of certification or licensure. The subject of "what exactly constitutes applied sport psychology and who can practice it?" has been debated amongst sport psychology professionals, and as of 2011, still lacks formal legal resolution in the United States. For instance, some question the ability of professionals who possess only sport science or kinesiology training to practice "psychology" with clients, while others counter that clinical and counseling psychologists without training in sport science do not have the professional competency to work with athletes.However, this debate should not overshadow the reality that many professionals express the desire to work together to promote best practices amongst all practitioners, regardless of training or academic background.

There are different approaches that a sports psychologist can use while working with his clients. For example, the social-psychological approach focuses on the social environment and the individual's personality, and on how complex interactions between the two influence behavior. The psychophysiological approach focuses on the processes of the brain and their influence on physical activity, and the cognitive-behavioral approach analyzes the ways in which individual thoughts determine behavior. Generally, there are two different types of sport psychologists: educational and clinical.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder and medical conditions that affect the functioning of the human brain , affecting the normal functioning of the cognitive , emotional and behavioral . He is the most prevalent psychiatric disorder with psychotic features of affective loss of feeling or emotional response and withdrew from normal interpersonal relationships . Often followed by delusions ( false beliefs ) and hallucinations ( perception without sensory stimuli ) .

Type Schizophrenia

Paranoid schizophrenia

Type of schizophrenia in which sufferers experience delusions about shadows and control of others and also delusion that makes people believe that he is a figure of the ( God , Angels , Prophets, etc. ) .

Schizophrenia Disorders

Type of schizophrenia that are characterized primarily by the disruption and disorder in the mind . A person suffering from schizophrenia often show signs of emotion and expression that are not appropriate to the situation . Hallucinations and delusions are symptoms frequently experienced symptoms for people who mederita this type of schizophrenia .

Catatonic schizophrenia

Type of schizophrenia is characterized by motor disorders , including extreme excitement and fainting . people who suffer from this form of schizophrenia would show negative symptoms : catatonic posture and flexibility as wax that can be maintained in the long down time ( negtivisme ) .

Schizophrenia diferntiatif

Type of schizophrenia in which patients with the disease have delusions , hallucinations and disorganized behavior but does not meet the criteria for paranoid schizophrenia , disorganized , or catatonic .

Schizophrenia rest

Will rest in the diagnosis of schizophrenia when epsiode of at least one of the four other types of schizophrenia that has occurred . But schizophrenia does not have a prominent positive symptoms .

Cause

Neurobiological influences There are several theories about the cause Skizorenia neurogiologis influence . One is an imbalance in dopamine , which is one of the chemicals in the brain cells .

On patients , found decreased levels of transtiretin or pre - albumin which is the bearer of the hormone thyroxine , which causes problems in the cerebrospinal zalir .

Schizophrenia can be about anyone . Data from the American Psychiatric Association ( APA ) in 1995 mentions 1 % of world population suffers from schizophrenia .

75 % of patients with schizophrenia begin to have it at the age of 16-25 years . [ 8 ] Age is youth and young adults at high risk for this life stage full of stressors . Condition of the patient is often too late realized the family and the environment because it is considered as part of the adjustment phase .

Introduction and early intervention in the form of medication and psychosocial very important because the longer he is not treated , the possibility of more frequent recurrence and resistance to therapy efforts stronger. A person experiencing schizophrenia symptoms should be immediately taken to a psychiatrist and psychologist .

Symptom

Indicator of premorbid ( pre - hospital ) pre - schizophrenia , among others

1.ketidakmampuan someone expressing emotion : a cold face , rarely smiling , indifferent ( flat affect )

2.Penyimpangan communication : patient focused talks tough , sometimes distorted ( tanjential ) or spinning ( sirkumstantial ) .

3.Gangguan attention : the patient is not able to focus , sustain , or move attention ( attention ) .

4.Gangguan behavior : a shy, introverted , socially withdrawn , could not enjoy the taste of fun , challenging for no apparent reason , disruptive and undisciplined .

The symptoms of schizophrenia can generally be divided into two classes :

1 . Positive symptoms

Including hallucinations , delusions , disordered thinking ( cognitive ) . These symptoms are called positive because it is a clear manifestation that can be observed by others .

2 . Negative symptoms

Symptoms is called negative because it is a loss of the typical or normal functioning person . Including less or not able to show / express emotion on the face and behavior , lack of urge to move , unable to enjoy the activities and the lack of ability that endeared speech ( alogia ) .

http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skizofrenia

CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy)

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy...

is a form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the important role of

thinking in how we feel and what we do.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy does not exist as a distinct therapeutic

technique. The term "cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)" is a very

general term for a classification of therapies with similarities.  There

 are several approaches to cognitive-behavioral therapy, including

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, Rational Behavior Therapy, Rational

Living Therapy, Cognitive Therapy, and Dialectic Behavior Therapy.

However, most cognitive-behavioral therapies have the following

characteristics:

1. CBT is based on the Cognitive Model of Emotional Response.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is based on the idea that our thoughts

cause our feelings and behaviors, not external things, like people,

situations, and events.  The benefit of this fact is that we can change

the way we think to feel / act better even if the situation does not

change.

 2. CBT is Briefer and Time-Limited.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is considered among the most rapid in terms

of results obtained.  The average number of sessions clients receive

(across all types of problems and approaches to CBT) is only 16.  Other

forms of therapy,  like psychoanalysis, can take years.  What enables

CBT to be briefer is its highly instructive nature and the fact that it

makes use of homework assignments.  CBT is time-limited in that we help

clients understand at the very beginning of the therapy process that

there will be a point when the formal therapy will end.  The ending of

the formal therapy is a decision made by the therapist and client. 

Therefore, CBT is not an open-ended, never-ending process.

3. A sound therapeutic relationship is necessary for effective therapy,

but not the focus.

Some forms of therapy assume that the main reason people get better in

therapy is because of the positive relationship between the therapist

and client.  Cognitive-behavioral therapists believe it is important to

have a good,     trusting relationship, but that is not enough.  CBT

therapists believe that the clients change because they learn how to

think differently and they act on that learning.  Therefore, CBT

therapists focus on teaching rational self-counseling

skills.

4. CBT is a collaborative effort between the therapist and the client.

 Cognitive-behavioral therapists seek to learn what their clients want

out of life (their goals) and then help their clients achieve those

goals.  The therapist's role is to listen, teach, and encourage, while

the client's roles is to express     concerns, learn, and implement that

 learning.

For excellent cognitive-behavioral therapy self-help and professional

books, audio presentations, and home-study training programs, please

click here.

5. CBT is based on aspects of stoic philosophy.

Not all approaches to CBT emphasize stoicism.  Rational Emotive Behavior

 Therapy, Rational Behavior Therapy, and Rational Living Therapy

emphasize aspects of stoicism.  Beck's Cognitive Therapy is not based on

 stoicism.  

Cognitive-behavioral therapy does not tell people how they should feel.

 However, most people seeking therapy do not want to feel they way they

have been feeling. The approaches that emphasize stoicism teach the

benefits of     feeling, at worst, calm when confronted with undesirable

 situations.  They also emphasize the fact that we have our undesirable

situations whether we are upset about them or not.  If we are upset

about our problems, we have two     problems -- the problem, and our

upset about it.  Most people want to have the fewest number of problems

possible.  So when we learn how to more calmly accept a personal

problem, not only do we feel better, but we usually put     ourselves in

 a better position to make use of our intelligence, knowledge, energy,

and resources to resolve the problem.

6. CBT uses the Socratic Method.

Cognitive-behavioral therapists want to gain a very good understanding

of their clients' concerns.  That's why they often ask questions.  They

also encourage their clients to ask questions of themselves, like, "How

do I really know that those people are laughing at me?"  "Could they be

laughing about something else?"

7. CBT is structured and directive.

Cognitive-behavioral therapists have a specific agenda for each session.

 Specific techniques / concepts are taught during each session.  CBT

focuses on the client's goals.  We do not tell our clients what their

goals "should" be, or what they "should" tolerate.  We are directive in

the sense that we show our clients how to think and behave in ways to

obtain what they want. Therefore, CBT therapists do not tell their

clients what to do -- rather, they teach their clients how to do.

8. CBT is based on an educational model.

CBT is based on the scientifically supported assumption that most

emotional and behavioral reactions are learned.  Therefore, the goal of

therapy is to help clients unlearn their unwanted reactions and to learn

 a new way of reacting.

Therefore, CBT has nothing to do with "just talking".  People can "just

talk" with anyone.

The educational emphasis of CBT has an additional benefit -- it leads to

 long term results.  When people understand how and why they are doing

well, they know what to do to continue doing well.

9. CBT theory and techniques rely on the Inductive Method.

A central aspect of Rational thinking is that it is based on fact.

Often, we upset ourselves about things when, in fact, the situation

isn't like we think it is.  If we knew that, we would not waste our time

 upsetting ourselves.

Therefore, the inductive method encourages us to look at our thoughts as

 being hypotheses or guesses that can be questioned and tested.  If we

find that our hypotheses are incorrect (because we have new

information), then we      can change our thinking to be in line with

how the situation really is.

10. Homework is a central feature of CBT.

If when you attempted to learn your multiplication tables you spent only

 one hour per week studying them, you might still be wondering what 5 X 5

 equals.  You very likely spent a great deal of time at home studying

your multiplication tables, maybe with flashcards.

The same is the case with psychotherapy.  Goal achievement (if obtained)

 could take a very long time if all a person were only to think about

the techniques and topics taught was for one hour per week.  That's why

CBT therapists assign reading assignments and encourage their clients to

 practice the techniques learned.

Psychopath vs Sociopath

Differences in Outward Behavior of a Psychopath and a Sociopath

Social Relationships

Psychopaths often live at the fringes of society. They often tend to be extremely disorganized and are unable to maintain normal relationships with family, friends or co-workers. Unlike psychopaths, sociopaths can be almost obsessively organized and are normal in their social relationships, often forming symbiotic or parasitic relations. A sociopath would likely live an outwardly normal life and appear to blend in well with society; they may even be charming.

Career

Psychopaths often find it hard to maintain a steady job and home.

Sociopaths often have successful careers and try to make others like and trust them. This is because they understand human social emotions quite well but are unable to experience them. This allows them to be master manipulators of human emotions.

Violent tendencies

A psychopath's outbreaks of violence are erratic and unplanned. After an erratic act, psychopaths can often be easily identified as they generally leave behind a trail of clues and a history of violent outbursts.

A sociopaths can plan acts of violence for years and may often be motivated by greed or revenge. Violent crimes by sociopaths are often controlled and often go undetected until after a sociopath is caught.

Similarities between Psychopaths and Sociopaths

Sociopaths and psychopaths both face medical disorders that can be treated or alleviated if properly diagnosed. Treatment involves therapies and may involve proper medication. In fact, psychiatrists often don't distinguish between the two based on behavior; instead, they label a person with ASPD a sociopath if their mental condition is a result of mainly social conditions like abuse during childhood and a psychopath if the condition is mainly congenital.

The symptoms in both cases begin to establish and surface at approximately fifteen years of age. The initial symptom can be excessive cruelty to animals followed by lack of conscience, remorse or guilt for hurtful actions to others at a later stage. There may be an intellectual understanding of appropriate social behavior but no emotional response to the actions of others. Psychopaths may also face an inability to form genuine relationships, and may show inappropriate or out of proportion reaction to perceived negligence.

Treatment and Support

Antisocial Personality Disorder is a mental illness that can be managed with drugs and therapy.

http://www.diffen.com/difference/Psychopath_vs_Sociopath

Common Roles of Military Psychologists on the Ground

The military is a select group of citizens who highly trained and

equipped to perform national security tasks in unique and often chaotic

and trauma filled situations. These situations can include the

front-lines of battle, national emergencies, allied assistance, or the

disaster response scenes where they are providing relief-aid for the

host populations of both friendly and enemy nations. Though many

psychologists may have a general understanding with regards to a humans

response to traumatic situations, Military Psychologists are uniquely

trained and experienced specialists in applied science and practice

among this special population. While the soldiers may be providing

direct aid to the victims of events, the Military Psychologists are

providing specialized aid to both soldiers, their families, and the

victims of the events as they cope with the often "normal" response or

reaction to uncommon and abnormal circumstances.

In addition to the specialized roles previously mentioned, military

psychologists often study the dynamics, train people in, and consult on

hostage negotiations. In some cases the psychologists might not be the

one directly handling the hostage situation, but hostage negotiators

find value in resolving the hostage crisis using many of the scientific

principles that are derived from the science of psychology. In addition,

 many of the principles of the scientific discipline of Clinical

Psychology have their roots in the work of the early military

psychologists of World War II.

Another common practice domain for Military psychologists is in

performing Fitness for Duty Evaluations, especially in high risk and

high reliability occupations. The set of unique challenges often

faced by those in the military and the professions of arms such as:

police, strategic security, and protective services personnel, the

ability to perform reliable and accurate fitness for duty evaluations

adds value and maximizes the human capitol investment in the workplace

by optimizing retention of the talents of active and prospective service

 men and women while minimizing risk in many areas including violence,

mishap, and injury potential. The types of Fitness evaluations include

both basic entry examinations and career progression examinations such

as those conducted when individuals are seeking promotion, higher

classification clearance status, and specialized, hazardous, and mission

 critical working conditions. When operational commanders become

concerned about the impact of continuous, critical, and traumatic

operations on those in their command, they often consult with the

Military Psychologist. Military psychologists can assess, diagnose,

treat and recommend the duty status most suitable for the optimal

well-being of the individual, group, and organization. Events that

affect the mental state, resilience or psychological assets and

vulnerabilities of the warrior and the command are where Military

Psychologists are most equipped to meet the unique challenges and

provide expert care and consultation to preserve the behavioral health

of the fighting force. The Fitness Evaluations might lead to command

directed administrative actions or provide the information necessary to

make decisions by a medical board or other tribunal and must be

thoroughly conducted by non-biased individuals with the experience and

training necessary to render a professional opinion that is critical to

key decision makers. Military Psychologists must be well versed in the

art and science of psychology as specialized applied practice

professionals. They must also be highly competent generalists in the

military profession, and be able to understand both professions well

enough to examine human behavior in the context of military operations.

It takes the Psychologist several years beyond the Doctorate to develop

the expertise necessary to understand how to integrate psychology with

the complex needs of the military.

Another very select and infrequent use of Military Psychology is in the

interview of subjects, the interrogation of prisoners, and the vetting

of those who may provide information of operational or intelligence

value that would enhance outcomes of friendly military operations or

reduce friendly and enemy casualties. Psychology's scientific principles

 applied here allow the interviewer, agent, or interrogator to get as

much information as possible through non-invasive means without the need

 to resort to active measures or risk violating the rules of engagement,

 host nation agreements, international and military law or crossing the

threshold of the Geneva Convention's guidelines to which the United

States and its allies subscribe, regardless of the status of many of the

 modern belligerent countries on the international laws and United

Nations agreements.

My Opinion: The Role of Psychologists in the military world was no doubt very important indeed. With the psychologist, the tasks performed by the military will be running smoothly in accordance with the planned strategy, more conditioned and mental health is also very helpful for finding out the causes of the origin of the war opponents.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_psychology

Abnormal psychology

Supernatural Tradition

Supernatural tradition, also called the demonological method, abnormal behaviors are attributed to agents outside human bodies. According to this model, abnormal behaviors are caused by demons, spirits, or the influences of moon, planets, and stars. During the Stone Age, trephining was performed on those who had mental illness to literally cut the evil spirits out of the victim's head. Conversely, Ancient Chinese, Ancient Egyptians, and Hebrews believed that these were evil demons or spirits and advocated exorcism. By the time of the Greeks and Romans, mental illnesses were thought to be caused by an imbalance of the four humors, leading to draining of fluids from the brain.

During the Dark Ages, many Europeans believed that the power of witches, demons, and spirits caused abnormal behaviors. People with psychological disorders were thought to be possessed by evil spirits that had to be exorcised through religious rituals. If exorcism failed, some authorities advocated steps such as confinement, beating, and other types of torture  to make the body uninhabitable by witches, demons, and spirits. The belief that witches, demons, and spirits are responsible for the abnormal behavior continued into the 15th century.Swiss alchemist, astrologer, and physician  Paracelsus  (1493–1541), on the other hand, rejected the idea that abnormal behaviors were caused by witches, demons, and spirits and suggested that people's mind and behaviors were influenced by the movements of the moon and stars.


I think up to now this tradition is still valid . Some people, especially in the developing countries and some followers of religious sects in the developed countries, continue to believe that supernatural powers influence human behaviors. In Western academia, the supernatural tradition has been largely replaced by the biological and psychological traditions.